aggression a2 psychology AQA

AGGRESSION

Bandera and Walters believed that aggression could not be explained using traditional learning theory.

SLT suggests we learn by observing others. Our biological makeup creates potential for aggression, the actual expression of aggression is learned.

Observation = learn aggressive responses through observation. We watch behaviours of our role models then imitate this behaviour. Whereas skinners operant conditioning claims that children take place through direct reinforcement.

A01

·         Mental representation = Bandura claimed that in order for social learning to take place a child must form a mental representation of events in social situations. A child must represent the rewards and punishments for aggressive behaviour in terms of expectancies of future outcomes. Appropriate behaviours arise as the child displays learned behaviours.

Production of behaviour=

·         Maintenance through direct experience if a child is rewarded for a behaviour they are likely to repeat it. A child who has a history of successfully bullying other children will come to attach value to aggression.

·         Self efficiency expectancies In addition to forming expectancies of the likely outcomes of aggression, children develop confidence in their ability to carry out aggressive actions. If the behaviour has been bad in the past they have less confidence to use aggression.

DEINDIVIDUATION (when you lose your identity as part of a crowd)

Deindividuation is a combination of anonymity, suggestibility and contagion. The theory was based on Gustave le bon’s 1895 crowd theory. It explains how an individual can be transformed when they were part of a crowd.  The combination of anonymity, suggestibility and contagion form a collective mind that takes possession of the individual. The individual looses self control and acts against social norms. 

Deindividuation is a psychological state characterised by lower self evaluation. It is aroused when a person joins a large group. If you are part of a group you feel a sense of shared responsibility. If you have a mask or are anonymous, you may not evaluate your actions as you know you won’t be judged.

Institutional Aggression

Importation model

·         Interpersonal factors Irwin and Cressey = prisoners bring their own personal social histories with them into prison; this influences adaption to prison environments.  Prisoners are not blank slates. Many of the normative systems developed would be imported with them into prison.

·         Gang membership = gang membership is related to violence members of street gangs offend at higher levels

·         Situational Factors =deprivation model this model argues that prisoner or patent aggression is the product of stressful or oppressive conditions. This could be overcrowding and how it increases fear and frustration.

·         Pains of imprisonment Skyes described deprivations that imitate experience within prison which could be linked to an increase in violence. These included loss of liberty, loss of autonomy, and loss of security.

The importation model argues that the reason why aggression exists is because people bring past aggression with them into prison. Irwin and Cressy = prisoners do not enter as blank slates.

The deprivation model argues prison aggression is the result of oppressive and stressful conditions inside such as overcrowding. The loss of freedom and lack of opportunity leads to aggression and frustration.

Institutional aggression: Genocide

Institution may refer to a whole section of society defined by ethnicity, religion etc

Violence may occur when institution relationships with another is characterised by hatred and hostility.

Dehumanisation = may make humans feel worthless and not worthy of moral consideration

Obedience to authority = milgram believed holocaust was a result of situational pressures that faced Nazi soldiers to obey their leaders

5key stages:

·         Difficult social situations leading to

·         Scape-goating (someone who takes blame) less powerful groups

·         Dehumanisation of less powerful groups

·         Moral values and rules incapable to less powerful groups = this is where killing begins

·         If others are passive in this violence the process is enhanced

Neutral and hormonal mechanisms in aggression

Neurotransmitters = chemicals in the brain which transmit messages

Serotonin = reduces aggression as you are less reactive to emotional stimuli. Low levels of serotonin associated with increased impulsive behaviour, aggression and violent suicide.

Mann et al used questionnaires and found that serotonin reducing drugs increased hostility and aggression in males but not in females.

Dopamine

The link between dopamine and aggression is less well established than the link between serotonin and aggression. 

A01

Lavine said that giving amphetamines which increase dopamine increases aggression. Buitelaar said that giving antipsychotics which reduce dopamine reduced aggressive behaviour in violent delinquents

A02

Raleigh – velvet monkeys.  Individuals with a diet that increased serotonin exhibited decreased aggression and vice versa. This suggests the difference in aggression could be linked to serotonin

Coupis and Kennedy – dopamine link may be a consequence not a cause of aggression. In mice dopamine is a positive reinforce in response to aggressive events. This suggests individuals will seek out aggressive situations because they are rewarded for them.

 Hormonal Mechanisms

Testosterone is thought to influence aggression from early adulthood due to its action on the brain areas which control aggression.

Dabbs et al = measured salivary testosterone levels. Those with high levels had a history of violent crime. Measure 692 prisoners, higher levels in rapists and violent offenders than in burglars.

Cortisol mediates aggression related hormones such as testosterone. High levels of cortisol inhibit testosterone, so low levels of cortisol are associated with increased aggression.

Virkuunen found low levels of cortisol in habitual violent offenders. Tennes and Kreye found the same in violent school children.

A02

Mazur – need to distinguish between aggression and dominance. Aggression is one form of dominant behaviour. In humans the influence of testosterone on dominance is likely to be expressed in more subtle ways than in non human animals where the influence of testosterone on dominant behaviour may be shown through aggression.

Mc Burnett et al = longitudinal study on the effect of cortisol on aggressive behaviour in boys with behavioural problems. Those with low cortisol began antisocial acts at a lower age and exhibited three times more aggressive symptoms than boys with high cortisol levels.

A02C

Gender bias – most research done on animals and males however it is known that there is biological differences between men and women

Deterministic – ignores human choice in how we behave. Implies people are not personally responsible for their behaviour.  

Genetic Factors in Aggression

Trying to determine the role of genetic factors in aggression is a question of nature nurture.

Monozygotic= identical twins share genes

Dizygotic = non identical twins share 50% of genes

Coccaro et al – tested adult twins nearly 50% of the variance in direct aggressive behaviour is down to the genetics

A02 – Miles and Carey = Meta analysis 24 twin and adoption studies genetic influence accounts for 50% of variance in aggressive antisocial behaviour

ROLE OF MAOA – no specific gene has been identified in human aggression. The gene responsible for the production of MAOA which regulates the metabolism of serotonin has been related to aggression. Low levels of serotonin are linked to depression and aggressive behaviour.

Genetics and violent crime – Brunner et al = studied dutch family many male members were violent, aggressive and had been involved in crime. These men had low levels of MAOA in their body.

Why is it difficult to establish genetic contributions to aggressive behaviour?

·         More than one gene is usually responsible and contributes to the behaviour

·         As well as genetic factors there are non genetic such an environmental

·         These influences interact with each other – genetic factors may affect which environmental factors have an influence ( gene environment interaction)

Problems assessing aggression in terms of criminal inheritance:

Many studies of aggression have relied on parental or self report; where as other studies have used observational techniques

Ø  Methodological limitations

Ø  Inconclusive evidence

Using non human animals is important as you can use experimental manipulation. This could be selective breeding programs to eliminate a specific gene. Young et al identified genetic mutation that causes violent behaviour in mice. A counterpart does not exist in humans although its function is not known.

Evolutionary explanations of aggression

Evolutionary psychologists argue that the different reproductive challenges faced by our ancestors lead to sex differences.

Male sexual jealously as a result of suspected infidelity is the cause of violence in interpersonal relationships.

In many cultures the murder of an adulterous wife is encouraged.

A01

·         Daly and Wilson

They claim that men have evolved different strategies to deter female partners from having an affair. These range from vigilance to violence and are all fuelled by jealously. This is an adaption that has evolved to deal with uncertainty.

Unlike women, men can never be 100% sure that they are the father of their children; men are at risk of cuckoldry. The consequence of cuckoldry is that men might unwillingly invest his resources into a child that is not his own.

Buss suggests male partners have strategies that have evolved for the purpose of keeping a mate. These include restricting their partner’s autonomy. ‘Direct guarding’ and negative inducements in the form of violent threats to prevent them from straying.

Male sexual jealously is claimed to be the biggest motivation for killings in domestic disputes in the US.

Another problem linked to male violence is sexual infidelity. This could be the voluntary sexual relations between someone married and someone who is not their partner.

A consequence of men’s perceptions or suspicions of their wives sexual infidelity is sexual correction or partner rape.

A02

Uxoricide = wife killing

Jealousy = early indication that man could be violent = real world application to friends and family to alert them of the danger signs

Shackelford et al = this study shows clear relationship between sexual jealously, mate retention strategies by males and violence towards women

Physiological basis for jealousy based aggression = Takanshi et al

Group displays as an adaptive response

Social psychological theories such as Deindividuation don’t tell the whole story about aggression in groups. Aggressive group displays are a product of external stimulus that triggers behaviour.

Sports

Wilson claims xenophobia is the fear and hatred of strangers or foreigners. This has been documented in every group of criminal’s displayer higher forms of social organisation.

Natural selection has favoured those genes that caused altruistic behaviour to people in our group but intolerant to outsiders.

Podalari and Balestri = found evidence of xenophobic tendancies in analysis of Italian football crowds

Territorialitly – Threat display

Another explanation for the evolution of group’s displays in sport is based on territoriality,   the protective response to an invasion of one’s territory.  Territorial behaviour is common in animal species which show threat to outsiders. This can be seen in football matches to make the opponents feel intimidated. It is an adaptive as our ancestors would have been protecting valuable resources.

Testosterone and territorial behaviour

Neave and Wilson found that football teams playing at home were more likely to win than visiting players. This could be evolved from defending home territory which leads to aggressive responses. An increase in testosterone did not occur before away games.

Evolutionary explanation for war is that any behaviour are because of adaptive benefits for the individual and their offspring.

Benefits of aggressive displays = sexual selection

In societies that experience frequent warfare, males are more likely to escape infanticide than females because of their usefulness in the battle. Displays of aggression and bravery are attractive to females.

Acquisition of the status within groups = displays of aggression could lead to peers respecting them more and would strengthen bond in group

Costly displays signal commitment – Anthropologists suggest one of the primary functions of ritual displays is the promotion of group solidarity in terms of collective action.

A02  

+ Foldesi – provides evidence to support the link between xenophobia and violent displays among Hungarian football crows = racist conduct lead to an increase in violence

This could have a cultural bias as it was done in Hungary

Lewis et al = among football fans crowd support rated most important factor contributing to home advantage

Research has provided support for the importance of aggressive displays in determining sexual attractiveness of male warriors. Palmer and Tilley found male youth street gangs have more sexual partners than ordinary males.

War is not in the genes – war emerged when moved from nomadic to settle lifestyle. People could no longer walk away from their troubles as they were tied down to one single settlement.